Pursuit of the Marks of Radha Neither Radha, nor the pair of Radha and Krishna is the central subject of any known work prior to Gitagovinda by Javadeva (estimated 1170-1245 CE) [Stoler-Miller, 1975]. Their treatment in stray verses of about 20 prior literary works indicates that the personality of Radha was already established to some extent before Gitagovinda. Oldest descriptions of pastimes of Radha and Krishna, explicitly mentioning Radha's name are confined to few scattered verses that can be found not in Sanskrit literature but in Prakrit works written by patrons of various kings like Sattasai of Hala (600 CE, "Krishna blew away cow-dust from Radha") and Gaudavaho (600 CE, "Radha's nail-marks remove anguish") followed by some scattered verses in Sanskrit literature like Venisamhara (800 CE, "Krishna followed Radhika covered in veil of tears"), Dhvanyalokalocana by Abhinavgupta (800 CE, "Radha embraced a vine that had grown on Jamuna bank"), even copper inscriptions of Vakpati Munja (1031 CE, "it was so sick with the pain of Radha's neglect"), Saraswatikantabharana of Bhoj (1000-1055 AD, verses glorifying Radha and seeking benediction ) and Dasavatarcharita by Ksmendra written in 1066 AD ("Radha became his most beloved for his joy"), about a century prior to Jayadava (1170 CE - 1245 CE). Jayadeva's work was revolutionary as it was the first ever work that dedicatedly explored the theme of Radha and Krishna. The word Radha however can be traced back to Atharvaveda. Atharvaveda has 20 books. The 19th book is "Prayer to the Lunar Mansions and other Powers for protection and prosperity". "radhe visakhe suhavanuradha jyestha sunaksatram aristam mulam" (19.7.3) The meaning of the verse including other neighboring verses is: Krittikās, Rohinī be swift to hear me! Let Mrigasiras bless me, help me Ārdrā! Punarvasu and Sūnritā, fair Pushya, the Sun, Asleshās, Maghā lead me onward! My bliss be Svāti and benignant Chitrā, my right First Phalgunis and present Hasta. Rādhas, Visākhas, gracious Anurādhā, Jyeshthā and happy- starred uninjured Mūla. Food shall be earlier Ashādhas grant me; let those that follow bring me strength and vigour; With virtuous merit Abhijit endow me! Sravana and Sravishthās make me prosper. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19007.htm] If one follows the manuscript, words Radhe and Vishakhe are neither singular, nor plural, but dual forms of words Radha and Vishakha. It appears that Radha and Vishakha are dual star systems while Anuradha, Jyeshtha and Mula are names of single stars. After vedas came Ramayana and Mahabharata. There is no mention of the word Radha except in Mahabharata as the name of the foster mother of Karna, a completely different person. Puranas developed over longer periods of time than Vedas. In Matsya Purana, chapter 53, includes a verse stating that as a Purana, "it is supposed to be edited and revised to remain useful to the society" very much like an Encylopedia. The presence and absence of references to Radha in Puranas sheds great light on the development of Radha's figure. The reference to Radha in earliest of the Puranas is completely indirect. "Krishna went alone with 'one' of the Gopis" (Vishnu Purana, 700 BCE - 1000 CE, 5.13.33-46) "anayaradhito nunam ...", "certainly this particular gopi has perfectly worshiped the all-powerful" (Harivamsa, 100 BCE - 600 CE and Bhagavata, 800 CE - 1000 CE, 10.30.28, ) [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp130.htm] It is noteworthy that such indirect references were first used in literature in the commentaries of the Goswamis (disciples of Lord Chaitanya). In the Matsya Purana (200–500 CE), book 13, poem 38, "Radha is the name of the Devi that should be invoked in Vrindavana". In Linga purana (400 CE - 900 CE) we see "Radha as a form of Shakti that pleases Vishnu", "visnunaikena dhimahi, tan no radha pracodayat". (48.14) Varaha Purana (900 CE - 1100 CE) we get first ever reference to Radha-Kunda (water tank dedicated to Radha). "When Krishna killed Arista demon, Radha embraced him and a holy place was created nearby known as Radha Kunda." (164.35). And Padma Purana, believed to have evolved between a long period from 300 CE to 1500 CE, celebrates birth of Radha in "Sri Radha Janmastami Mahatmaya" (4.52) Now we see that the references to the name Radha, places and events associated with her become bold and explicit in later evolutions of Puranas. Note on Brahmavaivarta Purana: The extant versions of Brahmavaivarta Purana text are unusual as they center around Radha and Krishna but Radha is not mentioned in most other major Puranas. The older version of the Brahmavaivarta Purana existed by 700 CE and was once influential in its own way, because Nibandha authors of 15th and 16th century quoted nearly 1,500 lines in texts such as the "Smriti Candrika", which they claimed is in this Purana. However, only 30 of these lines are found in the extant manuscripts of Brahmavaivarta Purana suggesting massive rewrite of the original Purana between 1400 CE - 1600 CE. Another evidence of modifications of Puranas between 1000 CE to 1500 CE came to surface when the palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana discovered in Nepal dated from 810 CE was found to be entirely different than current versions of the same Purana text circulating in South Asia since the colonial era [R Andriaensen 1994]. The strange fact that only now we are beginning to notice is that the description of amorous pastimes of Krishna and Balarama with the Gopis and especially Radha do not appear anywhere in literature before middle of first millennium CE, say 500 CE but the folklore evolved gradually to the extent that over a period of next 1000 years, say by around 1500 CE, thanks to the instatement by Jayadeva and the culminating work done by the Goswamis, Radha's position got elevated to a rank equal and eventually above that of Rukmini and Styabhama, much so that starting right at Vrindavana, her image began replacing Rukmini and Satyabhama who vanished from almost all the North Indian temples. Once can still find Krishna traditionally being worshiped along with his wifes in many Tanjore paintings and many temples in remote South India, the reminiscent of tradition before the Goswamis!

Article on Facebook, dated May 16, 2017.